EDU 04.2: THEORETICAL BASE
OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
UNIT2: NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Sl. No: |
CONTENTS |
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1 |
Language and
Culture, Language and Society, Language and
Media (Print and Digital) |
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2 |
Basic Concepts in Linguistics – Morphology, Phonology, Syntax,
Semantics. |
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3 |
Psycho Linguistic Theories |
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4 |
Behaviorism-Imitation, Repetition, Reinforcement |
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5 |
Congnitivism – Schema |
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6 |
Constructivism – ZPD, Scaffolding, Mental Processes. |
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7 |
Krashen’s Hypothesis |
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8 |
Chomsky- LAD – Universal Grammar. |
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9 |
Multiple Intelligence |
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10 |
Previous year Questions |
A. Language and Culture
Culture and language rely a lot on each other. The power of language to reflect culture
and influence thinking was
first proposed by an American linguist and anthropologist, Edward Sapir (1884–1939), and his student, Benjamin
Whorf (1897–1941). The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis stated that the way we think and view the world is determined by our
language. Instances of cultural language
differences are evidenced in that some languages have specific words for
concepts whereas other languages use
several words to represent a specific concept. Culture is a vital part of the communication process. Consequently, it may be impossible for students to use the language appropriately without culture awareness.
It is an undeniable fact that to understand a language completely, it is essential to master not only the language knowledge including grammar, lexis and phonology but also certain
features of culture.
B. Language and Society
Language is central to social
interaction in every society, regardless of location and time period. Language and social interaction
have a reciprocal relationship. Language shapes social interactions and social interactions shape language. Language is
a tool for interacting with other human.
Sociolinguistics is the study of the connection between language and society
and the way people use language in
different social situations.
The basic premise of sociolinguistics
is that language is variable and ever changing. As a result,
language is not uniform or constant. Rather,
it is varied and inconsistent
for both the individual user and within and among groups of speakers who use the same language.
•
Language has a social function.
It helps us to establish
and maintain relationships. Meaning, while language is principally used for communication purposes, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships.
•
Also, the users of
the same language
speak differently from each other.
•
The kind of language each of them chooses
to use is in part determined by his social
background.
•
Thus, language, in turn,
reveals information about its speaker.
•
So, when we talk about the relationship between language and society, it is an exploration of a bidirectional relationship between the language and its users.
C. Language and Media
Media language has always attracted the attention of linguists, particularly applied linguists
and sociolinguists. There are four practical and principled reasons for this
interest.
First, the media provide
an easily accessible source of language
data for research
and teaching purposes.
Second, the media are important
linguistic institutions. Their output makes up a large proportion of the language that people hear and read every
day. Media
usage reflects and shapes both language use and attitudes in a speech community.
For second language learners, the media may function as the primary—or even the sole—source of native-speaker models.
Third, the ways in which the media use language are interesting
linguistically in their own right; these include how different dialects
and languages are used in advertising, how tabloid newspapers use language in a projection of their assumed readers'
speech, or how radio personalities use language—and only language–to construct their own images and their relationships
to an unseen, unknown audience.
Fourth, the media are important social
institutions. They are crucial presenters of culture, politics,
and social life, shaping as well as reflecting how these are formed and expressed. Media ‘discourse’
is important both for what it reveals about a society and for what it
contributes to the character of society.
❖ Basic concepts in Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.It is the study of human languages.This discipline Linguistics is broadly divided into six main categories or branches such as Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics.
PHONETICS
•
The phonetics is a branch
that deals with the study of individual sounds
•
How this individual sounds or speech sounds are produced or
received
•
Study of human speech sounds
in general with no references to any language
•
Examples : p, b, t ,k.. Etc.
PHONOLOGY
•
Branch that deals with how these individual speech sounds together
to make a meaningful spoken
unit
•
Study of sound pattern of language
•
It deals with how these individual speech
sounds are organised
or arranged in a particular language ie it analysis the sound
pattern of language
•
For example : Top, Stop,
Pot : here the particular sound t is arranged differently in each word with different sound pattern
So these speech
sounds are called phonemes. In English we have 26 letters and we have 44 phonemes.
44 phonemes
20 vowels 24 consonants
12 pure vowels
,8 diphthongs or monothongs
So that the smallest unit of sound is called phoneme or the basic sound unit is called phoneme.
MORPHOLOGY
•
Morpheme is the smallest
meaningful unit in a language
•
Morphology is the study of words, foundation and structure
•
The basic unit which constitutes a word form is called morpheme
•
Morphology is the systematic study of morphemes
or how morphemes join to form words is called
morphology.
•
Like phoneme is the
basic unit of sound in language, morpheme is the basic meaningful unit in language
•
For example ;Cats = cat + s
•
National = Nation + al
•
Bookishness = Book+ish
+ ness = 3 morphemes
•
The = one morpheme
•
Bad = one morpheme
•
Badly = 2 morpheme etc
SYNTAX
•
Syntax is branch that deals with the study of words arrangement or structure.
•
The syntax contains the system of rules for the structure of a sentence
in a language
•
For example, = subject + verb + object – the structure of sentence
•
ie. When a sentence
has subject, verb, object and used correctly in order then that sentence is syntactically correct or
grammatically correct.
For example, =
1. She Plays Cricket
2. He Received an award
3. 3.My Father Bought a new Car.
SEMANTICS
•
Semantics is a branch that deals with the meaning of words
and phrases
•
It is a branch
deals with how meanings are generated or produced
•
Study of text without
its context
•
Decontextualized
•
It does not
bother about the speaker of the sentence
or writer of the text, we create the literal
meaning of the sentence
•
For example, = My uncle has just
passed = literal
meaning
PRAGMATICS
•
Pragmatics is the branch that deals with the study of text with its context
•
contextualized study of text
•
Intended meaning is there
in the text and we have to find it
•
It bothers about the context
the speaker or the writer used
•
Pragmatics studies language that is not directly
spoken
•
Instead,
the speaker or writer hints or suggests a meaning
and the listener
or the audience assumes the correct intention or the context
behind that sentence and give replies to that sentence in that context.
•
For example, = my
uncle has just passed away
•
How as the day? Asked by the stranger.
SUPRASEGMENTAL
Suprasegmental, also called prosodic
feature, in phonetics, a speech feature
such as stress, tone,
intonation, pitch, word juncture that accompanies or is added over consonants
and vowels; these features
are not limited
to single sounds
but often extend
over syllables, words,
or phrases.
What is intonation?
Intonation, in phonetics, the melodic
pattern of an utterance. It conveys differences of expressive meaning (e.g., surprise, anger, or delight),
and it can also serve a grammatical function. Intonation is primarily a matter of variation in the
pitch of the voice. In such languages as English,
it is often accompanied by stress and rhythm to produce meaning.
(Tone is also a form of pitch modulation, but the term describes the use of pitch to differentiate words
and grammatical categories.).
In many languages, including English,
intonation distinguishes one type of phrase or
sentence from another.
The different intonations a person can use to say, “The cup of water is over there”
demonstrate this grammatical function: when a person begins
with a medium pitch and ends with a lower one (falling intonation),
this sentence is a simple assertion, but when a person uses a rising
intonation (high final pitch), it is a question.
Pitch
Pitch, in speech,
the relative highness or lowness of a tone as perceived by the ear, which
depends on the number of vibrations per second produced by the vocal
cords. Pitch is the main acoustic
correlate of tone and intonation. The pitch of a sound is how high or low it
is.
We
produce high pitched sounds when
our vocal folds have a high-frequency vibration, and when our vocal folds vibrate more slowly, the
resulting sound is lower in pitch. Some languages use pitch information to signal changes
in word meaning. If a language uses pitch this way, the pitch
information is called
tone. These example words are
from Yoruba, a spoken language
in Nigeria.
Stress
Stress, in phonetics, intensity given to a syllable of speech by special
effort in utterance, resulting in relative
loudness. This emphasis
in pronunciation may be merely
phonetic (i.e.,noticeable to
the listener, but not meaningful), as it is in French, where it occurs
regularly at the end of a word or
phrase; or it may serve to distinguish meanings, as in English, in which, for example,
stress differentiates the noun from the verb in the
word “permit.”
Vocalization
Any sound produced through the action
of an animal’s respiratory system and used in
communication. Vocal sound, which is virtually limited
to frogs, crocodilians and geckos, birds,
and mammals, is sometimes the dominant form of
communication
Syllable
Syllable, a segment of speech that
consists of a vowel, with or without one or more accompanying consonant sounds immediately preceding or
following—for example, a, I, out, too, cap, snap, check. A syllabic consonant, such as the final n sound in
button and widen, also constitutes a syllable. Closed (checked) syllables are those that end in a consonant; open
(free) syllables end in a vowel. The role that syllables play in the production of speech is a matter of considerable debate. So too is any more precise
definition of the syllable in phonetics and phonology.
Linguists commonly use language
variety (or simply variety) as a cover term for any of the overlapping subcategories of a language,
including dialect, register, jargon, and idiolect. Register
Register is a linguistic variety
regarded as appropriate to use in a particular speech situation. Register is usually associated with a particular
speech situation.
The term register refers to the various ways people use language
based on who they're talking to and their situation. We often talk about register in terms of formality. For example,
our word choices, tone of voice, and body
language will likely differ in a formal situation (e.g., a job interview)
compared to informal situations (e.g.,
hanging out with friends).
There are five main types of different
linguistic registers. They are: frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.
Dialect
Dialect refers to the variety
of language that can signal the speaker's
regional or social
background Dialect is a variety of language which differs grammatically, phonologically, lexically from other varieties, and which
is associated with a particular social class or status group.
Examples - Australian dialect, Indian dialect.
❖ PSYCHOLINGUISTIC THEORIES
Psycholinguistics is an integration
of two disciplines; psychology and linguistics. Psychology is the study of mind and behavior; linguistics is the study of language.
So, in general, psycholinguistics
can be defined as the study of mind and language. It is concerned with the relationship between the human mind and the language as it examines the
processes that occur in
brain while producing
and perceiving language.
Psycholinguistics covers three main
points; language production,
language perception and language acquisition.
·
Language production refers to the processes
involved in creating
and expressing meaning
through language.
·
Language perception refers to processes involved in interpreting and understanding both written and spoken language.
· Language acquisition refers to processes of acquiring a native or a second language.
1.
Behaviourist Theory
(Theories of E L Thorndike, Ivan
Pavlov, J B Watson, B F Skinner etc). The concept of learning has undergone a series of revolutionary changes in the
twentieth century. Early learning theorists
attempted to explain all learning in terms of some form of ‘conditioning’. Part
of the problem with early
behaviourist theories was that they concentrated almost exclusively upon the nature
of incoming stimuli
and different kinds of responses. However, this proved
to be of limited value in accounting for the enormous
range of human actions.
Behaviorist theory, which is basically a psychological theory in its
essence, founded by J.B. Watson, is actually a theory of native language learning, advanced in part
as a reaction to traditional grammar. The supporters of this theory are Leonard Bloomfield, O.N. Mowrer, B.F. Skinner,
and A.W. Staats. Behaviorism was advanced
in America as a new approach to psychology in the early decades of the 20thcentury by making a particular emphasis
on the importance of verbal behavior, and received a considerable trust from the educational world of
1950s. The major principle of the behaviorist theory rests on the analyses of human behavior in
observable stimulus-response interaction and the association between them.
E L Thorndike was the first
behaviourist to explore the area that learning is the establishment of associations on particular process
of behaviour and consequences of that behaviour. Basically, "the
behaviourist theory of stimulus response learning, particularly as developed
in the operant conditioning model of Skinner,
considers all learning
to be the establishment of
habits as a result of reinforcement and reward”. This is very reminiscent of Pavlov's experiment which indicates that
stimulus and response work together. According to this category, the babies obtain native language habits via varied babblings which resemble the appropriate words repeated by a person or object he is rewarded,
this very reward
reinforces further articulations of the same sort into
grouping of syllables and words in a similar situation. In this way, he goes on emitting
sounds, groups of sounds, and as he grows up he combines
the sentences via generalizations and analogy (as in
*goed for went, *doed, for did, so on), which in some complicated cases, condition him to commit errors by
articulating in permissible structures in speech. By the age of five or six, or babblings and mutterings grow into socialized speech but little
by little they are internalized as implicit speech, and thus many of
their utterances become distinguishable
from the adults. This, then, obviously, means that behaviourist theory is a
theory of stimulus-response psychology.
"Through a trial-and-error process,
in which acceptable utterances are reinforced by comprehension and approval, and un acceptable
utterances are inhibited by the lack of reward, he gradually learns to make
finer and finer discriminations until his
utterances approximate more and more closely the speech of the community in
which he is growing up. To put it in
other words, children develop a natural affinity to learn the language of their social surroundings whose importance
both over language learning and teaching must never be underestimated. In this respect behaviorist theory stresses
the fact that "human and animal learning
is a process of habit formation.
A highly complex learning task,
according to this theory may be
learned by being broken' down into small habits. These are formed correct or
incorrect responses, are rewarded or
punished, respectively'. For behaviourism, learning is the acquisition of new behaviour through conditioning or
associative learning i.e., making a new association between events in the environment. There are two types of possible conditioning:
Classical conditioning & Operant
conditioning.
Behaviouristic theories focus only on the objectively observable aspects of learning.
a) Learning is manifested by a change
in behaviour.
b) The environment shapes behaviour.
c) The principles of contiguity and reinforcement are central to explaining the learning process.
Basic Tenets of Behaviorist Theory
The following principles illustrate the operating
princip1es of behaviorism
1. Behaviorist Theory dwells
on spoken language. That is primary medium of language is oral: speech is language, because there are many
several language s without written form, because we learn to speak before we learn to read and write. That is why spoken language
must have a priority in language teaching.
2. Behaviorist Theory is the
habit formation theory of language teaching and learning, reminding us the learning of structural grammar.
Language learning a mechanical process leading the learners to habit formation whose underlying scheme is the conditioned
reflex.
3. All learning is the
establishment of habits as the result of reinforcement and reward. Positive reinforcement is reward and negative
reinforcement is punishment.
4. Sees and considers
learning as a change in behaviour.
5. Learner is given a stimulus and makes an appropriate response.
6. Learner is seen as passive.
7. Learning is transmitted
from an authority to the students.
8. Learning is broken into
small Pieces. It is clear that language
learning and its development, for the behaviorists, is a matter of conditioning by means of imitation, practice, reinforcement, and
habituation, which constitute the paces of language acquisition.
9. It must be born in mind that all behaviorist theories
of learning are associationistic, including
Thorndike's, Guthrie's, Hull's,
Skinner's, and the theory of the school of functionalism. Apparently,has its shortcomings, but it cannot
be denied that learning process
is for the most part a behaviorist processing, a verbal behavior.
10. In language teaching area,
behaviorism establishes the basic
background of exercises, either oral or written in viewing language as stimulus
and response. In addition, it gives a great deal of insight
into the recognition of the use of controlled observation to discover the law s of behavior.
11. It has exerted a great impact by influencing many teaching methods on the area of language teaching, for
example, Audio-lingual Method, Total
Physical Response, and Silent Way embody the behaviorist view of language;
also, British Structuralism has created the theory of language called
Situational Language Teaching,
as seen in the achievements of British
applied linguistics, such as Palmer,
Hornby, and Frisby,
and the British
linguists like]. R. Firth and M.A.K. Halliday.
12. In a word behaviorist
theory aims at discovering behavioral
justifications for designing language teaching in certain ways, being a hub a
of many language teaching and
learning theories.
13. It must not be forgotten
that it has given a push for the creation of empiricist language
learning which became
very fashionable in U.S.A. and in Europe.
2.
Cognitive Theory
(Gestalt views of learning -Wertheimer,
Kohler, Kafka & Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory of Learning) The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in
1960s as the dominant paradigm. New cognitive
frameworks of learning
began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s.In
contrast to behaviourism, cognitive psychologists are interested in the mental processes that are involved
in learning. In recent years
cognitive psychology has had a considerable influence on language teaching methodology. In a cognitive
approach, the learner is seen as an active participant in the learning
process, using various
mental strategies. The individual learner
is more key to Gestaltists than the environment that behaviourists emphasize.
➢ Cognitive approach
looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning.
➢ Learning is defined as change in a learner’s
schemata or mental
constructions.
➢ It considers learning as the inner mental activities such as thinking,
memory, knowing, and problem-solving.
➢ Cognitivists consider
how human memory works to promote learning.
➢ The learner is viewed as an active information processor.
➢ Memory system is an active organized
processor of information.
➢ Prior knowledge
plays an important
role in learning. Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and
development of human intelligence.
➢ Adaptation is the
mechanism underlying Cognitive development- the process of building mental representations or schemes of the world
through direct interaction with it. This adaptation to the environment
3. Constructivist Theory - (Learning Theories
of Piaget, Bruner,
Vygotsky, Gagne & Ausubel)
Constructivist movement is an extension of the cognitive
movement. The contribution of thinkers like Jean Piaget,
Jerome Bruner and LeVygotsky helped to create
a new awareness in this field.
Constructivism is a psychological theory of knowledge which argues that
learners construct or generate
knowledge and meaning from their experiences. However, Constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote active learning, or learning by doing.
Formalization of the theory of
constructivism is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, who articulated mechanisms by which knowledge is internalized by learners. He suggested that through processes of accommodation and
assimilation, individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences. When individuals
assimilate, they incorporate the new experience into an already existing
framework without changing
that framework.
According to the theory,
accommodation is the process of reframing one's mental representation of the external
world to fit new experiences. It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular
pedagogy. In fact, constructivism is a theory describing how learning happens,
regardless of whether
learners are using
their experiences to understand a lecture or following the
instructions for building a model airplane. In both cases, the theory of constructivism suggests that
learners construct knowledge out of their experiences. However, Constructivism is often associated with pedagogic
approaches that promote active learning,
or learning by doing. Piaget’s theory of Constructivist learning has had wide
ranging impact on learning theories
and teaching methods
in education and is an underlying theme of many
education reform movements.
❖
Zone of proximal development -One essential tenet in
Vygotsky's theory is the notion of the
existence of what he called t"zone of proximal development". Zone of
proximal development is the
difference between the child's capacity to solve problems on own, and his
capacity to solve them with assistance. In other words, the actual developmental level
refers to all the functions and activities that
a child can perform on his own, independently without the help of anyone else.
On the other hand, the zone of
proximal development includes all the functions and activities that a child or a learner can perform only with
the assistance of someone else.The person in this scaffolding process, providing non-intrusive intervention, could
be an adult (parent, teacher, caretaker, language
instructor) or another
peer who has already mastered
that particular function.
❖
Scaffolding and developing - Effective caregivers engage in
regulating dialogue with children
almost naturally. A key phenomenon of such interactions is that caregivers
maintain the dialogue just above the level, where the children
can perform activities independently. As children
learn, adults change
the nature of their dialogue
so that they continue to support the child, but also give the child increasing responsibility for the task. Jerome Bruner and his colleagues called this
scaffolding. It takes
place within a child’s zone of proximal
development, a level or range in which
a child can perform a task with help.
The ZPD, Scaffolding and the dialogue
are especially useful concepts for framework for school learning. Dialogue, scaffolding and working in one’s own ZPD can be accomplished in collaborative classrooms, and are being accomplished in many classrooms today all over the world.
❖ Discovery Learning -The teacher
has to create a linguistic atmosphere that
encourages the learner to discover ideas as well as facts. The teacher should
not make the learner imitate prepared
models. He/she should facilitate the child’s process
of constructing his/her
own models. Discovery learning promotes motivation and problem solving.
The teacher only presents the problem
before the child.
VYGOTSKY'S
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM & LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
According to Vygotsky, all
fundamental cognitive activities take shape in a matrix of social history and form the products of
sociohistorical development. That is, cognitive skills and patterns of thinking are not primarily
determined by innate factors, but are the products of the activities practiced in the social
institutions of the culture in which the individual grows up. Consequently, the history of the society
in which a child is reared and the child's personal history are crucial determinants of the way in which that individual will think. In this process
of cognitive development, language is a crucial tool
for determining how the child will learn how to think because advanced modes of thought are transmitted to the child
by means of words.
The origins of thought and language according to Vygotsky Like in animals,
thought and speech
have different roots in humankind, thought being nonverbal
and language being
non-intellectual in an early stage.
But their development lines are not parallel - they cross again and
again. At a certain moment around the age of two, the curves of development of thought and speech, until then separate, meet and join to
initiate a new form of behaviour. That is when thought becomes verbal and
speech becomes rational. A child first seems to use language for superficial social
interaction, but at some point,
this language goes underground to become the structure of the child's
thinking.
Inner Speech -Children learn when they engage in activities and dialogues with
others, usually adults or more
capable peers. Children gradually internalize this dialogue so that it becomes
inner speech, the means by which they direct their own behaviour and thinking. Eventually, this dialogue becomes
internalised as inner speech. There seems to be a general sequence
in the development of speech for oneself. When alone, very
young children tend to talk about what they have done after they complete an activity. Later
they talk as they work. Finally, they talk to themselves before they engage in an activity.
Speech now has assumed a planning
function. Later they internalise this speech.
Inner speech conversations carried on within ourselves begins as a social
dialogue with other people
and is a major mode of learning,
planning and self-regulation.
ZPD: Therefore, when it comes to
language learning, the authenticity of the environment and the affinity between its participants are
essential elements to make the learner feel part of this environment. These elements
are rarely predominant in conventional classrooms.
Vygotsky's influence on Krashen's second language acquisition theory .Although Vygotsky and Krashen come
from entirely different backgrounds, the application of their theories
to second language teaching produces
similarities. Influence or coincidence, Krashen's input hypothesis resembles
Vygotsky's concept of ZPD. According
to the input hypothesis, language
acquisition takes place during human
interaction in an environment of the foreign language when the learner
receives language 'input' that is one
step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then maximum acquisition
takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'.Krashen's
acquisition-learning hypothesis also seems to have been influenced by Vygotsky. Although Vygotsky speaks of
internalization of language while Krashen
uses the term language acquisition, both are based on a common assumption:
interaction with other people.
The concept of acquisition as defined
by Krashen and its importance in achieving proficiency in foreign languages, can be a perfect application of Vygotsky's view of
cognitive development as taking place in the matrix of the person's
social history and being a result of it. Even the distinct concepts in
Krashen's acquisition theory and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory are not conflicting but complementary in providing resources
for language teaching
methodology. By explaining human language development and cognitive development, Vygotsky's theory serves as a strong foundation for the modern
trends in applied linguistics. It lends support
to less structured and more natural,
communicative and experiential approaches and points
to the importance of early real-world human interaction in foreign language
learning.
5. Krashen’s Hypotheses (Monitor Theory
of Language Acquisition)
The
theory underlies Krashen
and Terrell's comprehension-based language learning methodology known as the natural approach
(1983). Monitor theory has been one of the most influential SLA theories developed by the linguist Stephen
Krashen to explain second language acquisition (SLA). It is based on five main hypotheses, referred as monitor
theory. These comprise;
1. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis: Krashen claimed that
formal instruction, or learning and studying
about a language, is a different process from the natural acquisition that
takes place as a subconscious act
similar to the way children begin to understand their native language. We use learning
to produce correct
form or grammar,
while acquisition is used to understand and produce meaning. As an example, if someone wants
to learn Russian, she could learn Russian by taking classes on Russian grammar and vocabulary, but she could acquire
the language by reading and listening
to Russian texts or living in Russia and interacting with the people and
culture in that country (how about interacting with Russian people through the net Acquisition versus learning
Acquisition-learning distinction is
the most fundamental of these and the most widely known among linguists. According to Krashen these are two independent
systems of L2 performance; acquisition
is a product of subconscious processing similar to children’s L1 acquisition
and requires life-like L2
interaction, which focuses on communication rather than correctness, while learning occurs through formal instruction
and comprises conscious processing, which results in knowledge about the L2, e.g. grammatical rules.
Krashen believes ‘learned competence’
acts as a monitor or editor: that
is, whereas ‘acquired competence’ is responsible for the fluent production of sentences, ‘learned competence’
consciously corrects them. He claims that learned knowledge enables learners to read and listen more, so acquisition is effective.
2. The Natural Order hypothesis: There is a natural, predictable
order in which people acquire language. It is the same for each person
and independent of the instruction program (this is related
to Chomsky’s mentalistic view of language). 'we acquire the rules of
language in a predictable order'
3. The Monitor hypothesis: The learned
system should have the purpose
to self monitor
production. It is somehow
related to the goal that the learner may be able to identify and correct
mistakes or ask for help and reflect
on the process of acquisition. 'conscious learning ... can only be used as a Monitor
or an editor' (Krashen & Terrell 1983).
Monitor theory, as defined
by Krashen, states that adult
learners have two systems to enable them to develop their language ability:
subconscious acquisition and
conscious learning, with acquisition being more important. Conscious learning
is only available as a "monitor", i.e. learners can consciously 'edit' their 'output'
(utterances or written
work) to make themselves more fluent or comprehensible, based on what
they have formally learned about the second language. This,
however, has no effect on subconscious, true acquisition, and in its absence, output will be less
'accurate' or native speaker-like. Each of the hypotheses relate to conditions that are necessary
for acquisition to take place within a system that involves subconscious emergence of language alongside
conscious monitoring: for example, the natural
order hypothesis points towards a fairly fixed sequence of acquisition that adult language
users go through
when monitoring does not interfere much, and which is closer
to first language
acquisition by children.
The
monitor hypothesis asserts that a learner's learned system acts as a monitor to what they are producing. In other words,
while only the acquired system is able to produce
spontaneous speech, the learned system is used to check
what is being spoken.Before the learner produces an utterance, he or she internally scans it for errors, and uses the learned system
to make corrections.
Self-correction occurs when the
learner uses the Monitor to correct a sentence after it is uttered. According to the hypothesis, such self-monitoring
and self-correction are the only functions
of conscious language learning. The Monitor model then predicts faster initial
progress by adults than children,
as adults use this ‘monitor’ when producing L2 utterances before having acquired
the ability for natural performance, and adult learners
will input more into conversations earlier
than children.
4. The Input hypothesis: People acquire a language by
understanding messages or by receiving comprehensible input.
This input should be slightly
ahead of a learner’s current
state of . The input
hypothesis states that only comprehensible input will result in
acquisition of the target language. Krashen
says that learners must be exposed to input that is just beyond their current
level in order to make progress.
This concept is called i+1. If the level of input is at i+1 the learner will
make progress. If it is too high,
for instance i+7, the learner
will be unable to acquire
it.
5. The Affective Filter hypothesis: The affective filter hypothesis
asserts that a learner's emotional states
act as adjustable filters that freely permit or hinder input necessary to
acquisition. 'a mental block,
caused by affective factors ... that prevents learning. According to the
affective filter hypothesis, certain
emotions, such as anxiety, self-doubt, and mere boredom interfere with the process of acquiring a second language.
They function as a filter between the speaker and the listener that reduces
the amount of language input the listener
is able to understand. These
negative emotions prevent
efficient processing of the language input.
The hypothesis further states that the blockage can be reduced by sparking interest, providing low
anxiety environments and bolstering the
learner's self-esteem. When the learner is experiencing high anxiety, low
self-esteem or low motivation, the
filter turns on and causes the learner to block out input. Learners need both comprehensible input and a weak filter,
that is, a learning environment free of stress and anxiety, where the learner
is not forced to produce
and can progress
at his own pace.
Krashen suggests that adolescence and puberty
may not be good periods for SLA, as this ‘affective filter’ arises out of self-conscious reluctance to reveal
oneself and feelings of vulnerability. Learners with optimal aptitudes have a low affective filter,
this means; they try to get more input and more receptive to the input they get. The affective filter
controls the rate and the ultimate level of success of acquisition.
Pedagogical implications of Krashen’s Hypotheses.
1) The principal goal of
language teaching is to supply comprehensible input in order to facilitate acquirers. “The defining characteristic of a good teacher is someone who can make input comprehensible to a non-native speaker regardless of his or her competence in the target language.
2) Teaching should be seen as preparation for acquisition in the wider world.
3) The teacher must ensure
that learners do notfeel
anxious or are put on the defensive.
4) Grammar teaching
should be restricted to simple forms and
its goal is to enable
the to monitor.
5) Speaking is a result
of acquisition, not its
cause. It emerges as a result of building
competence via comprehensible input.
6) Learners progress
along the natural order by understanding input that contains
structures that are a little
bit beyond their current level of competence.
7) If input is understood, the necessary grammar
is automatically provided,
the teacher does not need
to teach the next structure. Noam Chomsky’s Contributions to
Linguistics & LAD
Chomskyan linguistics, beginning with his Structures, a distillation of his Logical
Structure of LinguisticTheory(1955,75), challenges structural linguistics and introduces transformational grammar. This approach takes utterances
(sequences of words) to have a syntax
characterized by a formal grammar;
in particular, a context-free grammar
extended with transformational rules.Perhaps his most
influential and timetested contribution to the field, is the claim that modelling
knowledge of language
using a formal grammar accounts
for the "productivity" or "creativity" of language.
In other words, a formal grammar of a language can explains the ability of a hearer-speaker to produce and
interpret an infinite number of utterances, including
novel ones, with a limited set of grammatical rules and a finite set of terms.
He has always acknowledged his debt
to Pāṇini for his modern notion of an explicit generative grammar although it is also related to rationalist
ideas of a priori knowledge. It is a popular misconception that Chomsky proved that language
is entirely innate
and discovered a "universal grammar" (UG). In fact,
Chomsky simply observed that while a human baby and a kitten are both capable
of inductive reasoning, if they are
exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human child will always
acquire the ability
to understand and produce language, while the kitten
will never acquire
either ability.
Chomsky labeled whatever the relevant
capacity the human has which the cat lacks
the "language acquisition device" (LAD) and suggested that one of the tasks for
linguistics should be to figure out what the LAD is and what
constraints it puts on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that would result from these
constraints are often termed "universal grammar" or UG.
Generative grammar - The
Chomskyan approach towards syntax, often termed generative grammar,
studies grammar as a body of knowledge possessed by language
users. Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that much of this
knowledge is innate, implying that children need only learn certain
parochial features of their native languages. The innate body of linguistic knowledge is often termed universal grammar.
From Chomsky's perspective, the strongest evidence for the existence of Universal
Grammar is simply the fact that children successfully acquire their native languages in so little time. Furthermore,
he argues that there is an enormous gap between
the linguistic stimuli
to which children
are exposed and the rich linguistic knowledge they attain (the "poverty of the stimulus" argument). The knowledge of Universal Grammar
would serve to bridge that gap.
Cognitivism and Contribution of Noam Chomsky
Noam Chomsky believes that children
are born with an inherited ability to learn any human language. He claims that certain linguistic structures which children
use so accurately must be already imprinted on the child’s mind.
Chomsky believes that every child has a ‘language acquisition device’ or LAD which encodes the major principles of a language
and its grammatical structures
into the child’s brain. Children have then only to learn new vocabulary and
apply the syntactic structures from
the LAD to form sentences. Chomsky points out that a child could not possibly learn a language through
imitation alone because the language spoken around them is highly irregular – adult’s speech is often broken up and even sometimes ungrammatical. Chomsky’s theory applies
to all languages as they all contain
nouns, verbs, consonants and vowels and children appear to be ‘hard-wired’
to acquire the grammar. Every language is extremely complex, often with subtle distinctions which even native
speakers are unaware of. However, all children,
regardless of their intellectual ability, become fluent in their native
language within five or six years.
Evidence to support Chomsky’s theory
·
Children learning to speak never
make grammatical errors
such as getting
their subjects, verbs and
objects in the wrong order.
·
If an adult deliberately said a grammatically incorrect sentence, the child would notice.
·
Children often say things that are
ungrammatical such as ‘mama ball’,
which they cannot
have learnt passively.
·
Mistakes such as ‘I drawed’ instead of ‘I drew’ show they are
not learning through imitation
alone.• Chomsky used the sentence ‘colourless green ideas sleep furiously’, which is grammatical although it doesn’t
make sense, to prove his theory: he said it shows that sentences can be grammatical without
having any meaning, that we can tell the difference
between a grammatical and an ungrammatical sentence without ever having heard the sentence before, and that we can
produce and understand brand new sentences that no one
has ever said before. Evidence against Chomsky’s
theory.
·
Critics of Chomsky’s theory say that although it is clear that children
don’t learn language
through imitation alone, this does not prove that they must have an LAD
– language learning could merely be through general
learning and understanding abilities and interactions with other people.
Theory of Multiple
Intelligences
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple
intelligences. According to him, intelligence is not a single entity;
rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each of these intelligences is independent of each other.
In Frames of Mind, Howard
Gardner (1983) argues
that learners could be said
to have strengths in particular types of intelligences rather than a level of intelligence based on their IQ. Gardner's
intelligences were originally arranged in seven
groups of skills and abilities:Gardner also put
forth that different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas, and
described nine types of intelligence. These are as follows:
1)
Linguistic (skills involved in the production and use of language): It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to
express one's thinking and understand others. Persons high on this intelligence are 'word-smart', i.e.
they are sensitive to different shades of word meanings, are articulate, and can create linguistic
images in their mind. Poets and writers are very strong in this component
of intelligence.
2)
Logical-Mathematical (skills in scientific thinking
and problem solving): Persons high on this
type of intelligence can think logically and critically. They engage in
abstract reasoning, and can
manipulate symbols to solve mathematical problems. Scientists and Nobel Prize
winners are likely to be strong
in this component.
3)
Spatial (skills in forming visual images and patterns): It refers to
the abilities involved in forming,
using, and transforming mental images. The person high on this intelligence can
easily represent the spatial world in
the mind. Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators, and surgeons are likely to
have highly developed spatial intelligence.
4)
Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms
and patterns): It is the capacity to produce, create
and manipulate musical patterns.
Persons high on this intelligence are very sensitive to sounds and vibrations, and in
creating new patterns of sounds.
5)
Bodily-Kinesthetic (using whole or portions of the body
flexibly and creatively): This consists
of the use of the whole body or portions of it for display or construction of
products and problem solving.
Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons are likely to have such
kind of intelligence.
6)
Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle aspects of others'
behaviours): This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings
and behaviour of other people so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others. Psychologists,
counsellors, politicians, social workers, and religious leaders are likely to possess
high interpersonal intelligence.
7)
Intrapersonal (awareness of one's own feelings, motives, and
desires): This refers to the knowledge
of one's internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate
to others. Persons
high on this ability have finer sensibilities regarding their identity, human
existence, and meaning
of life. Philosophers and spiritual leaders present examples
of this type of intelligence.
8)
Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features of the natural world):
This involves complete awareness of
our relationship with the natural world. It is useful in recognising the beauty
of different species of flora and
fauna, and making subtle discriminations in the natural world. Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists,
zoologists, and bird watchers possess more ofnaturalistic intelligence.
9)
Existential Intelligence (sensitivity and capacity to tackle
deep questions about human existence) Philosophers and theorists possess
more of Existential Intelligence.
METHODOLOGY (EDU 04.2) PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS-UNIT 2
1 Marks
1. Morphology is the study of :Grammatical items, words, phonemes, transcription?(June 2022)
2.
Behaviorist classes are: teacher centred,learner centred,task centred, Process
oriented? (June 2022)
3.
What is
linguistics? (June 2022)
4.
Which one of the following
is not an intonation pattern in English? (Rising,
falling, Rising-falling,Rising-falling-rising)
5. The zone of proximal
development is seen as a? (June 2015)
6. The proponent of Nuero Linguistic programming is?(June 2015)
7.
The English language
comprises? (June 2015)
8. Cognitive Psychology has practical applications in?(June 2015)
9. Define morphology ? (Aug 2021)
10.
Identify the pair which is not correctly matched ?
Reinforcement – practice, Habit – repetition,
11.
Acquisition - exposure , Constructivism - reproduction ? (2021
|
|
Aug) |
|
|
2 Marks |
|
|
|
|
1. |
What is stress? (2017) |
|
|
2. |
What is allophone? (2017) |
|
|
3. |
What are consonants? given
examples.(2017) |
|
|
4. |
What is register? (2017) |
|
|
5. |
Differentiate between language and acquisition?(2015 Dec) |
|
|
6. |
what is phoneme?(June 2018) |
|
|
7. |
What is dialect? (June 2018) |
|
|
8. |
Give two implications of psycholinguistic
theory in ELT ? ( 2021
Aug) |
|
4 Marks |
|
|
|
|
1. |
Explain Intonation with examples? (2017) |
|
|
2. |
Explain word stress with
eg? (June 2018) |
|
|
3. |
Differentiate between formal and
functional grammar?(June 2018) |
|
|
4. |
Explain briefly
LAD of Noam
Chomsky ?(2017) |
10 Marks
5.
How can we blend Krashen
and Chomsky as regards to their View of language
teaching? (Dec 2015)
6.
How will you apply MI theory In your English language class?(Dec 2015)
7.
Bring out the importance of English language
in present era?(Dec
2015)
8.
Explain constructivist Approach
chomsky’s theories on language acquisition?(June 2022)
1.
Explain Krashen's hypothesis in second language
acquisition ? (2021 Aug)
2.
Compare the basic assumptions of language acquisition or learning process as presented by the theories of behaviourism and constructivism? (2021 Aug
END
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