EDU
–04.2: THEORETICAL BASE OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
Unit
1: General Introduction to English Language Teaching and Learning
Perspectives
of English Studies - Significance in the Global context
According
to Bloch and Trager, a language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols that a
social group uses to communicate. English plays a unique and important position
in the global communication sector in this era of globalization, information,
and technology. Currently, this language is taught all over the world. The most
distinguished reputation in the world is held by this language. In the realm of
education, it has a unique identity.
English
is the most widely spoken language in the world today, and as such, its
importance cannot be underestimated or ignored. Thanks to technological
advancements, English has become increasingly important in a variety of fields,
including engineering, medicine, and education—which is, in my opinion, the
most important field in which English is required. Although English is not the
most spoken language in the world, it is the official language of many nations,
and it is estimated that 2 billion people use English regularly for
communication.
English
is the most widely used language in business, and speaking it has nearly become
a need for anyone hoping to work in a global workforce. Studies conducted
worldwide indicate that cross-border commercial communication is primarily done
in English. Therefore, its significance in the global marketplace cannot be
overstated; learning English can genuinely transform your life.
The majority of popular books, movies, and songs released worldwide are written
and produced in English. As a result, learning English will give you access to
a multitude of entertainment options and improve your understanding of
different cultures.
Most of the content produced on the internet (50%) is in English. So knowing
English will allow you access to an incredible amount of information which may
not be otherwise available!
World
Englishes
The
term "World Englishes" refers to newly emerging localized or
indigenized varieties of English, particularly those that have emerged in areas
influenced by the United States or the United Kingdom. The study of World
Englishes involves identifying English varieties used in a variety of global
sociolinguistic contexts and examining the ways in which sociolinguistic
histories, multicultural backgrounds, and functional contexts influence English
use around the globe.
The
issue of World Englishes was first raised in 1978 to examine concepts of
regional Englishes globally. Pragmatic factors such as appropriateness,
comprehensibility and interpretability justified the use of English as an
international and intra-national language. In 1988, at a Teachers of English to
Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) conference in Honolulu, Hawaii, the
International Committee of the Study of World Englishes (ICWE) was formed. In
1992, the ICWE formally launched the International Association for World
Englishes (IAWE) at a conference of "World Englishes Today", at the
University of Illinois, USA.
Currently,
there are approximately 75 territories where English is spoken either as a
first language (L1) or as an unofficial or institutionalized second language
(L2) in fields such as government, law and education. It is difficult to
establish the total number of Englishes in the world, as new varieties of
English are constantly being developed and discovered.
The
notions of World English and World Englishes are far from similar, although the
terms are often mistakenly used interchangeably. World English refers to the
English language as a lingua franca used in business, trade, diplomacy and
other spheres of global activity, while World Englishes refers to the different
varieties of English and English-based creoles developed in different regions
of the world. Alternatively, the term Global Englishes has been used by
scholars in the field to emphasise the more recent spread of English due to
globalization, which has resulted in increased usage of English as a lingua
franca.
Kachru's Three Circles of English
The most influential
model of the spread of English is Braj Kachru's model of World Englishes. In
this model the diffusion of English is captured in terms of three Concentric
Circles of the language: The Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.
The Inner Circle refers to English as it originally took shape and was spread
across the world in the first diaspora. In this transplantation of English,
speakers from England carried the language to Australia, New Zealand and North
America. The Inner Circle thus represents the traditional historical and
sociolinguistic bases of English in regions where it is now used as a primary
language: the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand,
Ireland, anglophone Canada and South Africa, and some of the Caribbean
territories. English is the native language or mother tongue of most people in
these countries. The total number of English speakers in the inner circle is as
high as 380 million, of whom some 120 million are outside the United States.
The
Outer Circle of English was produced by the second diaspora of English, which
spread the language through imperial expansion by Great Britain in Asia and
Africa. In these regions, English is not the native tongue, but serves as a
useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups. Higher education, the
legislature and judiciary, national commerce and so on may all be carried out
predominantly in English. This circle includes India, Nigeria, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Kenya, non-Anglophone South Africa, the
Philippines (colonized by the US) and others. The total number of English
speakers in the outer circle is estimated to range from 150 million to 300
million.
Finally,
the Expanding Circle encompasses countries where English plays no historical or
governmental role, but where it is nevertheless widely used as a medium of
international communication. This includes much of the rest of the world's
population not categorized above, including territories such as China, Russia,
Japan, non-Anglophone Europe, South Korea, Egypt and Indonesia. The total in
this expanding circle is the most difficult to estimate, especially because
English may be employed for specific, limited purposes, usually in a business
context. The estimates of these users range from 100 million to one billion. The
inner circle (UK, US etc.) is 'norm-providing'; that means that English
language norms are developed in these countries. The outer circle (mainly New
Commonwealth countries) is 'norm-developing'. The expanding circle (which
includes much of the rest of the world) is 'norm-dependent', because it relies
on the standards set by native speakers in the inner circle.
English
as a skill subject
A
skill subject is one that requires the careful learning of the skills involved,
and all kinds of language use involves judicious use of the four language
skills. English is considered as a skill subject, and the learning of it
involves the learning of the four language skills – LSRW – that is, Listening,
Speaking, Reading and Writing.
Language
skills are classified into two - productive and receptive. Productive skills
are the ones where the learner creates or produces something, whereas the
receptive skills are ones where the learner receives input from an exterior
source.
Through
daily activities in the classroom, teachers provide learners with opportunities
to develop each skill: students listen (to the teacher use the target
language, to a song, to one another in a pair activity), speak (pronunciation
practice, greetings, dialogue creation or recitation, songs, substitution
drills, oral speed reading, role play), read (instructions, written
grammar drills, cards for playing games, flashcards) and write (fill-in-the-blank
sheets, sentences that describe a feeling, sight or experience, a dialogue
script, a journal entry).
Subskills
The
language skills of speaking, listening, writing and reading are often divided
into sub-skills, which are specific behaviours that language users do in order
to be effective in each of the skills.
Listening
Retain chunks of language in short-term memory.
Discriminate between the distinctive sounds of English.
Recognize reduced forms of words.
Process speech at different rates of delivery.
Process speech containing pauses, errors, corrections, and other performance
variables.
Recognize grammatical word classes (e.g., nouns and verbs), systems (e.g.,
tense, agreement, and pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
Recognize cohesive devices in spoken discourse.
Recognize the communicative functions of utterances, according to situations,
participants, and goals.
From events, ideas, etc. described, predict outcomes, infer links and
connections between events, deduce causes and effects, and detect such
relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information,
generalization, and exemplification.
Distinguish between literal and implied meaning.
Develop means of retaining information.
Speaking
Produce chunks of language of different lengths.
Produce English stress patterns.
Use an adequate number of words to accomplish purpose.
Monitor oral production and use strategic devices (e.g., pauses, fillers, self-
corrections, and backtracking) to enhance the clarity of the message.
Use grammatical word classes (e.g., nouns and verbs), systems (e.g., tense,
agreements, and pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical
forms.
Use cohesive devices.
Accomplish appropriately communicative functions according to situations,
participants, and goals.
Use appropriate registers and conventions in conversations.
Convey links between events and communicate relations such as main idea,
supporting details, new and given information, generalizations, and
exemplification.
Use facial features and body language along with verbal language to convey
meaning.
Reading
Discriminate among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns of
English.
Retain chunks of language of different lengths in short-term memory.
Process writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
Recognize a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their
significance.
Recognize grammatical word classes (e.g., nouns and verbs), systems (e.g.,
tense, agreement, and pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
Recognize cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in signaling the
relationship between and among clauses.
Recognize the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their significance for
interpretation.
Infer context that is not explicit by using world knowledge.
Recognize the communicative function of written text, according to form and
purpose.
Distinguish between literal and implied meaning.
Writing
Produce an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order patterns.
Use acceptable grammatical systems.
Use cohesive devices in written discourse.
Use the rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse.
Appropriately accomplish the communicative function of written texts according
to form and purpose.
Convey links and connections between events and communicate relations such as
main idea, supporting details, new and given information, generalizations, and
exemplification.
Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.
Teaching
ESL and EFL
EFL
is essentially a UK term whereas ESL is an American term. Beyond that, a
distinction is made between teaching English to non-native speakers in a
non-English speaking country (EFL) and teaching English to non-native speakers
in an English-speaking country (ESL).
For
instance, in a country like India, where English is quite commonly spoken, but
in which it is not a native language, English is taught as a Second Language
(ESL). However, in India, French is taught as a Foreign language, since it is
not predominantly spoken in the country at all.
First
Language [L1] and Second Language [L2]
A
first language (also native language, mother tongue, arterial language, or L1)
is the language or are the languages a person has learned from birth or within
the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis
for sociolinguistic identity. In some countries, the terms native language or
mother tongue refer to the language of one's ethnic group rather than one's
first language.
A
person's second language or L2, is a language that is not the native language
of the speaker, but that is used in the locale of that person. In contrast, a
foreign language is a language that is learned in an area where that language
is not generally spoken.
Bilingualism
Bilingualism
refers to an individual’s ability to use two languages effectively.
Monolingualism refers to the ability to use a single language. The ability to
use multiple languages is known as multilingualism.
Bilingualism,
and multilingualism is one of the greatest facts of life in the world today. To
begin with, the world's estimated 5,000 languages are spoken in the world's 200
sovereign states (or 25 languages per state), so that communication among the
citizens of many of the world's countries clearly requires extensive bi- (if
not multi-)lingualism. In fact, David Crystal (1997) estimates that two-thirds
of the world's children grow up in a bilingual environment. Considering only
bilingualism involving English, the statistics that Crystal has gathered
indicate that, of the approximately 570 million people world-wide who speak
English, over 41 percent or 235 million are bilingual in English and some other
language.
Code
switching
In
linguistics, code-switching occurs when a speaker alternates between two or
more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation.
Bilinguals and multilinguals—speakers of more than one language—sometimes use
elements of multiple languages when conversing with each other.
Teaching
of English in India - Three Language Formulae
The
three-language formula is a formula of language learning formulated by the
Union Education Ministry of the Government of India in consultation with the
states. The formula was enunciated in the 1968 National Policy Resolution. It
provides that children in the Hindi-speaking states are to be taught three
languages, namely Hindi, English and one of the local languages. The children
in non-Hindi-speaking states are to be taught the local language, English and
Hindi. The formula was formulated in response to demands from non-Hindi
speaking states, such as Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and mainly Tamil Nadu.
The
so-called "Three Language Formula" was devised in the chief ministers
conferences held during 1961. The National Commission on Education known as the
Kothari commission examined and recommended a graduated formula which was
recommended by the National Policy on Education,1968.
It
states that at the secondary stage, the State Governments should adopt, and
vigorously implement, the three-language formula which 'includes the study of a
modern Indian language, preferably one of the southern languages, apart from
Hindi and English in the Hindi-speaking States, and of Hindi along with the
regional language and English in the non-Hindi speaking States. Suitable
courses in Hindi and/or English should also be available in universities and
colleges with a view to improving the proficiency of students in these
languages up to the prescribed university standards.
Mother
tongue Interference
When
an individual’s understanding of the mother tongue has an impact on his or her
understanding of another language, that individual is experiencing mother
tongue interference or language transfer. Language interference is the effect
of language learners’ first language on their production of the language they
are learning. It means that the speaker’s first language influences his/her
second or and his/her foreign language.
There
can be negative transfers, otherwise known as interference, when the
understanding of one language complicates the understanding of another
language. For example a student who has learned the Malayalam alphabet might
transfer the curves and rounds in it to the English alphabet, thereby
distorting the English letters.
Alternatively,
there can be positive transfers such that knowing one language can aid
in developing skills for a second language. For example, as student who is
already familiar with the basic grammatical terms in Malayalam will find it
quite easy to transfer this knowledge while learning similar grammatical
concepts in English.
The
greater the differences between the two languages, the more negative the
effects of interference are likely to be. It will inevitably occur in any
situation where someone has not mastered a second language.
It
is important for the teacher to know the differences and similarities between
learner’s native language and the target language. By knowing them teacher will
be easier to decide what strategy, methodology or what material that will be
used in teaching second or foreign language.
English
as a Link Language
In
a country like India, that has innumerable cultures, languages and societies,
English serves the purpose of a link language. It is impossible for a person in
one state to communicate with a person in another state, without knowing the
latter’s language. Here, English comes to the average Indian’s rescue.
English
acts as the link-language, because it is easier to find people in every part of
the country, who know English. Therefore, a north Indian traveling in the South
can communicate with them, if he knows English. The same cannot be done in
Hindi. Thus it serves as a link language in the country that is renowned for
celebrating its unity in diversity.
Language
teacher competencies
Competence
(or
competency) is the ability of an individual to do a job properly. A
competency is a set of defined behaviours that provide a structured guide
enabling the identification, evaluation and development of the behaviours in
individual employees. Some scholars see "competence" as a combination
of practical and theoretical knowledge, cognitive skills, behaviour and values
used to improve performance; or as the state or quality of being adequately or
well qualified, having the ability to perform a specific role.
The
language-specific competencies that a language teacher needs in order to teach
effectively have to be precisely identified. These include the ability to do
the following kinds of things:
o
To comprehend texts accurately
o
To provide good language models
o
To maintain use of the target language in the classroom
o
To maintain fluent use of the target
o
To give explanations and instructions in the target language
o
To provide examples of words and grammatical structures and give accurate
explanations (e.g., of vocabulary and language points)
o
To use appropriate classroom language
o
To select target-language resources (e.g., newspapers, magazines, the Internet)
o
To monitor his or her own speech and writing for accuracy
o
To give correct feedback on learner language
o
To provide input at an appropriate level of difficulty
o
To provide language-enrichment experiences for learners
Learning
how to carry out these aspects of a lesson fluently and comprehensively in
English is an important dimension of teacher learning for those whose mother
tongue is not English. There is a threshold proficiency level the teacher needs
to have reached in the target language in order to be able to teach effectively
in
English.
A teacher who has not reached this level of proficiency will be more dependent
on teaching resources (e.g., textbooks) and less likely to be able to engage in
improvisational teaching.
For
teachers who are native speakers of English, other discourse skills will
also need to be acquired – skills that enable the teacher to manage classroom
discourse so that it provides maximum opportunities for language learning.
These discourse skills relate to the following dimensions of teaching:
o
To be able to monitor one’s language use in order to provide suitable learning
input
o
To avoid unnecessary colloquialisms and idiomatic usage
o
To provide a model of spoken English appropriate for students learning English
as an international language
o
To provide language input at an appropriate level for learners
However,
apart from the contribution to teaching skills that language proficiency makes,
research has also shown that a language teacher’s confidence is also dependent
upon his or her own level of language proficiency, so a teacher who perceives
herself to be weak in the target language will have reduced confidence in her
teaching ability and an inadequate sense of professional legitimacy.
A
variety of approaches have been proposed to address the language proficiency of
non-native–speaking English teachers. Many link the language component to the
methodology component, so that teachers practice the language skills needed to
implement particular classroom teaching strategies.
Teaching,
its nature
In
its broadest sense, teaching is a process that facilitates learning. Teaching
is the specialized application of knowledge, skills and attributes designed to
provide unique service to meet the educational needs of the individual and of
society. The choice of learning activities whereby the goals of education are
realized in the school is the responsibility of the teaching profession.
In
addition to providing students with learning opportunities to meet curriculum
outcomes, teaching emphasizes the development of values and guides students in
their social relationships. Teachers employ practices that develop positive
self-concept in students. Although the work of teachers typically takes place
in a classroom setting, the direct interaction between teacher and student is
the single most important element in teaching.
To
understand the nature of effective teaching, it would be better to list the
characteristics of efficient teachers.
1.
A great teacher respects students. In a great teacher’s classroom, each
person’s ideas and opinions are valued. Students feel safe to express their
feelings and learn to respect and listen to others. This teacher creates a
welcoming learning environment for all students.
2.
A great teacher creates a sense of community and belonging in the classroom.
The mutual respect in this teacher’s classroom provides a supportive,
collaborative environment. In this small community, there are rules to follow
and jobs to be done and each student is aware that he or she is an important,
integral part of the group. A great teacher lets students know that they can
depend not only on her, but also on the entire class.
3.
A great teacher is warm, accessible, enthusiastic and caring. This person is
approachable, not only to students, but to everyone on campus. This is the
teacher to whom students know they can go with any problems or concerns or even
to share a funny story. Great teachers possess good listening skills and take
time out of their way-too-busy schedules for anyone who needs them.
4.
A great teacher sets high expectations for all students. This teacher realizes
that the expectations she has for her students greatly affect their
achievement; she knows that students generally give to teachers as much or as
little as is expected of them.
5.
A great teacher has his own love of learning. and inspires students with his
passion for education and for the course material. He constantly renews himself
as a professional on his quest to provide students with the highest quality of
education possible. This teacher has no fear of learning new teaching
strategies or incorporating new technologies into lessons, and always seems to
be the one who is willing to share what he’s learned with colleagues.
6.
A great teacher is a skilled leader. Different from administrative leaders,
effective teachers focus on shared decision-making and teamwork, as well as on
community building. This great teacher conveys this sense of leadership to
students by providing opportunities for each of them to assume leadership
roles.
7.
A great teacher can “shift-gears” and is flexible when a lesson isn’t working.
This teacher assesses his teaching throughout the lessons and finds new ways to
present material to make sure that every student understands the key concepts.
8.
A great teacher collaborates with colleagues on an ongoing basis. Rather than
thinking of herself as weak because she asks for suggestions or help, this
teacher views collaboration as a way to learn from a fellow professional. A
great teacher uses constructive criticism and advice as an opportunity to grow
as an educator.
9.
A great teacher maintains professionalism in all areas—from personal appearance
to organizational skills and preparedness for each day. Her communication
skills are exemplary, whether she is speaking with an administrator, one of her
students or a colleague. The respect that the great teacher receives because of
her professional manner is obvious to those around her.
Learning,
its nature
Learning
is defined as a relatively lasting change in behaviour that is the result of
experience. Learning became a major focus of study in psychology during the
early part of the twentieth century as behaviourism rose to become a major
school of thought. Today, learning remains an important concept in numerous
areas of psychology, including cognitive, educational, social, and
developmental psychology.
Yoakman
and Simpson have described the following nine important characteristics of
learning.
(1)
Learning is growth: The individual grows as he lives. This growth implies both
physical as well as mental development of the learner. The individual gains
experiences through various activities. These are all sources of learning. The individual
grows through living and learning. Thus growth and learning are inter-related
and even synonymous.
(2)
Learning is adjustment: Learning enables the individual to adjust himself
properly, with the new situations. The individual faces new problems and new
situations throughout his life and learning helps him to solve the problems
encountered by him. That is why; many psychologists describe learning as
"a process of progressive adjustment to the ever-changing conditions which
one encounters." The society in which we live is so complex and so dynamic
that any one type of adjustment will not be suitable for all or many situations
and problems
(3)
Learning is purposeful: All kinds of learning are goal-oriented. The individual
acts with some purpose. He learns through activities. He gets himself
interested when he is aware of his objectives to be realized through these
activities. Therefore, all learning is purposive in nature.
(4)
Learning is experience: The individual learns through experiences. Human life
is fall of experiences. All these experiences provide new knowledge,
understanding, skills and attitudes. Learning is not mere acquisition of the
knowledge, skills and attitudes. It is also the reorganization of experiences
or the synthesis of the old experiences with the new.
(5)
Learning is an intelligent process: Mere cramming without proper understanding
does not make learning. Thus, meaningless efforts do not produce permanent
results. Any work done mechanically cannot yield satisfactory learning
outcomes. Learning therefore must be intelligent.
(6)
Learning is active: Learning is given more importance than teaching. It implies
self- activity of the learning. Without adequate motivation he cannot work
whole-heartedly and motivation is therefore at the root of self-activity.
Learning by doing is thus an important principle of education, and the basis of
all progressive methods of education like the Project, the Dalton, the
Montessori and Basic system.
7)
Learning is both individual and social: Although learning is an individual
activity, it is social also. Individual mind is consciously or unconsciously
affected by the group activities. Individual is influenced by his peers,
friends, relatives’ parents and classmates and learns their ideas, feelings and
attitudes in some way or others. The social agencies like family, church,
markets, and clubs exert immense, influence on the individual minds. As such,
learning becomes both individual as well as social.
(8)
Learning is-the product of the environment: The individual lives in interaction
of the society. Particularly, environment plays an important part in the growth
and development of the individual. The physical, social, intellectual and
emotional development of the child is molded and remolded by the objects and
individuals in his environment. Therefore, emphasized that child's environment
should be made free from unhealthy and vicious matters to make it more
effective for learning.
(9)
Learning affects the conduct of the learner: Learning is called the
modification of behaviour. It affects the learner's behaviour and conduct.
Every learning experience brings about changes in the mental structure of the
learner. Therefore, attempts are made to provide such learning experiences
which can mould the desired conduct and habits in the learners.
Roles
and Responsibilities of English Teacher
Teacher
as a Knowledge worker
Knowledge
workers are workers whose main capital is knowledge. Typical examples may
include software engineers, doctors, architects, engineers, scientists, public
accountants, lawyers, and teachers, because they "think for a
living". The kind of teaching needed today requires teachers to be
high-level knowledge workers who constantly advance – their own personal
knowledge as well as that of their profession.
Teachers,
if they are to be knowledge workers, must have individual responsibility for
ensuring they successfully accomplish the task. They must be able to manage
themselves. One aspect of individual autonomy is that in the classroom the
teacher is free to use their knowledge to best accomplish the task.
As
a knowledge worker, the teacher will need to inculcate the five skills namely -
Basic Teaching Skills, Discipline/Profession Specific Skills, Technology
Skills, Information Problem- Solving Skills, and Conceptual Skills.
Teacher
as a Facilitator
The
facilitative teacher is one who guides, instigates, and motivates students to
learn. As such, the teacher is the facilitator, rather than the source of
learning. In addition, the facilitative teacher understands that learning is a
complex process which involves an interaction between the curriculum,
instruction, the student, and the milieu. Further, the facilitative teacher
effectively implements appropriate instructional strategies and creates a
positive learning environment in the classroom. Finally, the facilitative
teacher serves as a guide and resource person, encouraging the student to
reflect and bring meaning to experiences.
The
Wittmer and Myrick model incorporates six primary characteristics of the
facilitative teacher which are:
1.
attentive - communicating, accurately listening, effectively taking time for a
student, looking for meanings and feelings behind words, and observing facial
expressions
2.
genuine - being honest in interpersonal relationships and displaying a real
concern and caring for the student
3.
understanding - having empathy for others’ frame of reference, including
different cultural backgrounds, and perceiving and responding to students’
feelings
4.
respectful - valuing each student as being unique, showing a positive regard
for each student and accepting his or her feelings and being polite to
students, even when handling misbehavior.
5.
knowledgeable - processing knowledge of one’s subject matter, developing the
ability to use a variety of instructional strategies, and serving as a resource
person.
6.
communicative - possessing effective interpersonal skill, being able to convey
ideas and feelings clearly in both written and verbal form, and having an
awareness of subtle meaning behind words.
Teacher
as a Scaffolder
Vygotsky
defined scaffolding instruction as the “role of teachers and others in
supporting the learner’s development and providing support structures to get to
that next stage or level”. An important aspect of scaffolding instruction is
that the scaffolds are temporary. As the learner’s abilities increase the
scaffolding provided by the more knowledgeable other is progressively
withdrawn. Finally the learner is able to complete the task or master the
concepts independently.
Caregivers
help young children learn how to link old information or familiar situations
with new knowledge through verbal and nonverbal communication and modelling behaviours.
Observational research on early childhood learning shows that parents and other
caregivers facilitate learning by providing scaffolds. The scaffolds provided
are activities and tasks that:
o
Motivate or enlist the child’s interest related to the task
o
Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable for a child
o
Provide some direction in order to help the child focus on achieving the goal
o
Clearly indicate differences between the child’s work and the standard or
desired solution
o
Reduce frustration and risk
o
Model and clearly define the expectations of the activity to be performed
According
to McKenzie scaffolding:
1.
Provides clear direction and reduces students’ confusion – Educators anticipate
problems that students might encounter and then develop step by step
instructions, which explain what a student must do to meet expectations.
2.
Clarifies purpose – Scaffolding helps students understand why they are doing
the work and why it is important.
3.
Keeps students on task – By providing structure, the scaffolded lesson or
research project, provides pathways for the learners. The student can make
decisions about which path to choose or what things to explore along the path
but they cannot wander off of the path, which is the designated task.
4.
Clarifies expectations and incorporates assessment and feedback – Expectations
are clear from the beginning of the activity since examples of exemplary work,
rubrics, and standards of excellence are shown to the students.
5.
Points students to worthy sources – Educators provide sources to reduce
confusion, frustration, and time. The students may then decide which of these
sources to use.
6.
Reduces uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment – Educators test their
lessons to determine possible problem areas and then refine the lesson to
eliminate difficulties so that learning is maximized.
Teacher
as a Mentor
Mentoring
is to support and encourage people to manage their own learning in order that
they may maximise their potential, develop their skills, improve their
performance and become the person they want to be. Mentoring is a powerful
personal development and empowerment tool. It is an effective way of helping
people to progress in their careers and is becoming increasing popular as its
potential is realised. It is a partnership between two people (mentor and
mentee) normally working in a similar field or sharing similar experiences. It
is a helpful relationship based upon mutual trust and respect.
A
mentor is a guide who can help the mentee to find the right direction and who
can help them to develop solutions to career issues. Mentors rely upon having
had similar experiences to gain an empathy with the mentee and an understanding
of their issues. Mentoring provides the mentee with an opportunity to think
about career options and progress. A mentor should help the mentee to believe
in herself and boost her confidence. A mentor should ask questions and
challenge, while providing guidance and encouragement. Mentoring allows the
mentee to explore new ideas in confidence. It is a chance to look more closely
at yourself, your issues, opportunities and what you want in life. Mentoring is
about becoming more self aware, taking responsibility for your life and
directing your life in the direction you decide, rather than leaving it to
chance.
As
a mentor, a teacher should:
o
Be a professional role model.
o
Have the mentee's best interests in mind. Those who are mentored by colleagues
put themselves in an unequal and vulnerable position in relation to persons
who, some time in the future, may be making decisions about their tenure and
promotion. Thus, the best mentors are likely to be those who volunteer to
participate in the activity.
o
Be a good communicator. Interpersonal skills such as active listening,
questioning, problem-solving and decision-making are critical elements. Mentors
must be open-minded and approachable in order to encourage their mentees to
seek help. Being a good communicator enables the mentor to know when to listen
and when to offer advice, when to assist and when to expect mentees to take the
initiative.
o
Be a diplomat. Mentees are naturally going to make mistakes. It becomes the job
of the mentor to help them correct their errors and develop
reflective/anticipatory thinking skills, by providing constructive feedback in
a helpful and non-threatening manner.
o Be non-competitive. Those who are self-reliant and non-competitive are more likely than others to have the skills needed for a wholesome mentoring relationship. Mentees may have higher energy levels, and produce more innovative plans than their mentors. Mentors must be secure within themselves not to feel threatened by fresh talent and potential.
Teacher
as a Social Engineer
A
social engineer is one who tries to influence popular attitudes, social
behaviors, and resource management on a large scale. Social engineering is the
application of the scientific method for social concern. Social engineers use
the methods of science to analyze and understand social systems, so as to
arrive at appropriate decisions as scientists, and not as politicians. In the
political arena, the counterpart of social engineering is political
engineering.
As
social engineers, they have the responsibility to socialise and humanise the
young minds and make them responsible citizens of the country. Teachers play a
significant role in producing responsible citizens, to make them stand above
the differences of caste and creed and commit themselves to the unity and
integrity of the nation.
Teachers
should have the passion for teaching, the right attitude and perfect mindset to
contribute for the country’s development and prosperity. The teachers had to
strive for providing quality education to transform the students into
self-reliant and self-assured citizens. Like two sides of the coin, knowledge
and culture were the two sides of education, and gaining knowledge without
culture would go waste.
Teacher
as a Reflective Practitioner
Reflective
teaching means looking at what you do in the classroom, thinking about why you
do it, and thinking about if it works - a process of self-observation and
self-evaluation. By collecting information about what goes on in our classroom,
and by analysing and evaluating this information, we identify and explore our
own practices and underlying beliefs. This may then lead to changes and
improvements in our teaching.Reflection is process in which lecturers become
aware, or are supported to become aware, of the theory and motives behind their
own teaching, to reflect on this, and to take some deliberate steps to develop.
Hatton
and Smith distinguish between dialogic and critical reflection and the level of
engagement associated with each. Dialogic reflection refers to a less intensive
approach that involves ‘discourse with the self’ to explore a given event or
incident. It involves considering the decisions and judgments made and possible
reasons for these. Critical reflection refers to efforts to accounting for the
broader historic, cultural, and political values in framing practical problems
to arrive at a solution.
What
does a Reflective Teacher do?
•
Solves problems in the classroom
•
Is aware of the assumptions he or she brings to teaching
•
Understands the institutional and cultural context of his or her teaching
•
Participates in curriculum development and school change
•
Seeks professional development opportunities
Assumptions
of Reflective Teaching Theory
•Reflective
teachers are knowledgeable about pedagogy (methods and theories of teaching)
•We
can learn a lot about teaching from self-inquiry
•Much
of what happens during teaching is unknown to the teacher
•Experience
is not enough to grow as a teacher
•Reflection
can give us a deeper understanding of the teaching process Results of becoming
Reflective Teachers
•Teachers
develop a deeper, better “schemata” of teaching.
•Teachers
have better pedagogical reasoning skills
•Teachers
are better at improvisation in the classroom
•Teachers
become better decision makers in the classroom because they know what can
influence learning outcomes.
Methods
of Reflective Teaching: How to observe and collect evidence
•Peer
observation
•Same
lesson, Different ways
•Video
recording
•Keeping
a journal
•Student
surveys
•Student
notebooks and tests
Maxims
of Teaching
In
order to achieve the aims and objectives of the teaching of a particular
subject certain maxims of teaching have been laid down. The teaching of the
subject is then planned and carried out keeping these maxims in mind as the
guiding principles:
Simple
to complex: It goes without saying that the students need to be taught
the simplest of things first. They can they gradually be led to more complex
matters.
Known
to unknown: It is always better to proceed from known to
unknown. It demands that the teacher should make efforts to establish some
association with the previous knowledge of the students while imparting them
any knew knowledge.
Concrete
to abstract: Depending on the mental age of the
students, concrete concepts need to be taught first. They may then be gradually
led on to more abstract concepts, keeping in mind their ability of
assimilation.
Particular
to general: Particular and specific examples need to be provided
initially before the students are exposed to general ideas.
From
Analysis to Synthesis: Before instructing them to make up the whole, teachers
might first let their students to break something down into its constituent
components.
From Whole to Parts: A child finds greater significance in the whole than in
the parts.
From Near to Far: Before attempting to teach the pupils material that is
outside of his immediate environment, the teacher may first introduce them to
what is visible in their surroundings.
From Actual to Representative: When teaching children, it is preferable to use
actual items rather than representatives like models, drawings, etc.
From Empirical to Rational: Knowledge that is primarily acquired by observation
and experience is known as empirical knowledge. Arguments and abstractions help
to promote rational knowledge. When teaching youngsters, empirical knowledge
might be chosen above intellectual knowledge.
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